Interconnectedness of reward dissatisfaction of public Technical Vocational Education and Training (TVET) educators with educator turnover intentions and prolonged tenure

Educator turnover intentions and prolonged tenure is a huge problem in Public TVET institutions in the Western Cape in South Africa. Educator turnover and prolonged tenure intentions is interconnected to educators’ dissatisfaction with rewards (intrinsic and extrinsic). Public TVET educators’ dissatisfaction with rewards result in increased turnover and lack of the desire to prolong tenure among educators. In 2006 educator turnover increased by 5.6%. Due to this problem the South African government was forced to replace about 20 000 educators annually in the education sector in all provinces. The major problem encountered by the government was that during this period of time, was that it was not producing enough teachers to fill in the gaps created increased educator turnover. As a result, high turnover experienced in educational institutions had a negative effect on the quality of service delivery. A structured self-administered Job Descriptive Index (JDI) questionnaire was utilized in collecting data. Data was processed using Software Package for Social Science (SPSS) Version 23. Results revealed that dissatisfaction with rewards (extrinsic and intrinsic) increased turnover and lack of a desire to prolong tenure among Public TVET educators in Public TVET institutions in the Western Cape. Recommendations were that Public TVET institutions needed to improve rewards (intrinsic and extrinsic) to manage increased turnover and lack of a desire by educators to prolong tenure. Therefore, it was recommended that Public TVET had to adopt the Total Rewards model invented by World at Work to manage the problem of increased Public TVET educator turnover.

is inclusive of public and private TVET educators, and educators in primary and high schools in South Africa (Davids, 2010;FET, 2009;Uzhenyu, 2015). Educators have been leaving the education sector in large numbers because of a number of reasons and are still doing so. Staff shortages in Public TVET colleges have been compounded by the fact that the South African government has not been training enough educators to replace those who leave teaching for one reason or the other. In addition to this young people are not eager to train as teachers because they perceive the profession in a negative sense. This has made the situation worse. For example, educators leave the teaching profession in South Africa because they are attracted to work in Europe where conditions of employment are perceived to be better than in South Africa (FET Round Table, 2010;Hutchinson, Neary, Marriot & Jackson, 2014). According to (Crouch & Perry, 2003), general dissatisfaction with conditions of service as previously indicate drive educators out of the teaching profession. Other reasons that were found to have immensely contributed to educator turnover is lack of promotional opportunities especially among female educators, and lack of clear career pathing. In addition, rushed administrative processes to manage and control educator training capacity in the 1990s also contributed to high educator turnover. Young people also worsened the problem by showing no or little interest in joining the teaching profession. If ever young people join teaching, they leave teaching after a few years for greener pastures. Due to above discussed problems, the government has had to replace approximately 20000 educators annually from 2006 because of high educator turnover experienced in the entire education sector (Jeremiah, 2018;Hall, Altman, Nkomo, Peltzer, & Zuma, 2005).

LITERATURE REVIEW:
This section discusses staff turnover and lack of prolonged tenure and its causes, which is normally a byproduct of public Technical Vocational Education and Training (TVET) educators failure to gain job satisfaction and meaning in their jobs. The causes of reward dissatisfaction and the resultant failure to have meaning in the job force employees to eventually decide to leave the organisation in search of greener pastures is the focus of discussion in this section. Employee turnover is an important organisational phenomenon which demands the full attention of the organisation as it affects organisational performance. It is important for organisations, individuals, and society, to have a full understanding of the phenomenon of employee turnover and its influence organisational performance. There is a need to understand turnover's effects on the smooth operations of public Technical Vocational Education and Training (TVET) institutions. From an organisational perspective, employee turnover represents a significant cost to the organisation in terms of recruiting costs, training costs, socialising costs and work disruptions (Jeremiah, 2018;Papier, 2008). Masigibiri & Nienaber (2011) recommends that given the influence employee turnover has on the operations of the organisation, it is important for the public Technical Vocational Education and Training (TVET) College Councils to be able to analyse, understand, and effectively manage turnover. This is done in order to minimise the impact of Public TVET educator turnover on organisational performance.

MEANING OF STAFF TURNOVER:
Employee turnover refers to termination of an employment relationship that an individual member has with the organisation. It also refers to the percentage of employees leaving the organisation for whatever reason at any given time, as compared to those who remain in the organisation. There are two common types of turnover namely, voluntary and involuntary employee turnover. Employee voluntary turnover is initiated by the employee while involuntary turnover is initiated by management who may decide to get out of the employment relationship because of certain reasons (Nujjo & Meyer, 2012). For example, voluntary turnover could be explained as a situation whereby an employee volunteers to resign as a result of a chronic ailment which renders him/her incapable of continuing to work. Involuntary turnover may be brought about by the fact that an employer may end up laying off employees because of circumstances beyond his/her control such as the ones necessitated by an unforeseen event such as a natural disaster like a drought. The natural disaster may render a business incapable of continued operation, and hence precipitating need to retrench. Turnover can also be divided into functional and dysfunctional turnover. Functional turnover can be forecasted and controlled whereas dysfunctional turnover cannot be forecasted and controlled. In addition to the above discussed, avoidable turnover is distinguishable from unavoidable turnover, and this enables an organisation to plan accordingly and ensure that proper emphasis is placed on the avoidable proportion. Finally, turnover rate refers to the rate of individuals leaving the organisation at any given time as a fraction of the total labour force (Zhoutao, Jinxi & Yixiao, 2013). Related to the above discussed terms is tenure, which is the length of time an individual employee has been employed by the organisation. Tenure is closely related to the concept of employee loyalty or affective commitment. This means that employees loyal and committed to the extent that they are happy with their job situation and they do not entertain thoughts of leaving the organisation in the near future or long term. Often it is loyal employees who usually remain with the organisation for a long period of time as a result of their perceptions of tangible and non-tangible benefits associated with prolonged tenure with the organisation. In many organisations because of perceived benefits from prolonged tenure with the organisation, it is employees find it desirable staying in the organisation for many years (long-tenure). Long-tenured employees are believed to be knowledgeable of how the system works and are loyal because if they were not they would not have stayed for many years in the same organisation. However, the phenomenon of employee turnover can be taken to extremes and can create problems in the sense that if one wants to leave there is no need to hold him or her back. Holding onto employees who want to leave the organisation creates problems for the organisation in future. Employees may end up holding the organisation at ransom by forcing the organisation to improve their conditions of employment if they believe that the organisation held them back. Employees can use this loophole as leverage to meet their demands (Jeremiah, 2018;Nujjo & Meyer, 2012).

Reasons educators leave teaching:
As depicted in Figure 1, newly qualified South African educators (in general) are attracted to teaching positions abroad due to better conditions of service (2%); better work conditions (3%); for other reasons, safer working environments (4%); and unemployment in South Africa (5%). Educators also leave their jobs to join family and friends abroad (7%). Others go abroad due to professional reasons (17%). Other educators leave teaching in South Africa to take advantage of opportunities to travel abroad (27%). Further to the above given reasons, confirming that dissatisfaction with intrinsic and extrinsic rewards is a major driver of increased educator turnover, as shown in Figure 1, thirty two percent (32%) of educators leave their teaching jobs in South Africa due to being attracted by higher salaries offered abroad (Department of Education (DoE, 2005;Wedekind, 2010).

Long working hours:
Educators in general, inclusive public TVET educators are expected to engage their students for at least 1800 hours per year. This can be narrowed down to showing that educators enduring a 7-hour day long engaging their learners and which would translate to at least 257 days of teaching per year. This would also mean that educators work for the whole year without a rest or a break since a year is 365 days long and this is a huge challenge for educators. In addition, educators are expected to perform multiple duties in a public TVET beside extra-curricular activities. Extra-curricular activities utilise up to 80 hours of professional development time for educators per annum and this leaves educators with no time to improve themselves professionally (ELRC Collective Agreement 1 of 2013). The Department of Basic Education also confirmed that time absorbed by extra-curricular activities leave educators with no time to develop their careers and to be with their families. This means that educators' work-life-balance is highly compromised (DoE, 2005).

Huge workloads:
In addition to the above discussed challenges, difficult conditions under which educators operate, especially educators' astronomical workloads is a possible cause of educators' high turnover rate. Educators are often perceived to have favourable working hours as well as the benefits that come along with the nature of their jobs such long college holidays by those who do not fully understand the vagaries of the teaching profession. However, letters from educators in the newspapers and other media have often shown that in addition to tutoring, educators are expected to be available after hours and over weekends for extra-curricular activities Volume IX Issue 3, September 2018 50 www.scholarshub.net such as sports, parents' evenings, college activities and sport training sessions. Educators in general inclusive public TVET educators are also expected to spend long hours crafting lesson plans, marking and labouring through administrative work related to their work at home. This prevents them from having time to be their families especially their children and spouses who also need their attention. Administrative work that educators must fulfil after work and in their homes related to marking tests and exercises, setting of tests and examinations among others. This leaves educators with little or no time to spend with their families and could be another reason why educators end up leaving teaching (DoE, 2005;Soudien, 2010). Although the ELRC Collective Agreement 1 of 2013 stipulated the normal workload of educators, increased educator workload in public TVET institutions partly resulted from increased administrative tasks educators have to perform because of different curricula demands introduced since 1996. In addition, the location of the learning institutions, whether rural, urban, and semi-urban also influence the nature of educator responsibilities. For example, in areas like Atlantis in Cape Town where the majority of the students come from high density areas of Khayelitsha, Dunnoon and Nyanga for example, educators have to give extra classes to learners because there are no libraries where learners can access learning resources. Due to these challenges, educators' responsibilities differ considerably. There are also historical challenges institutions face as well as challenges that relate to the location of the institution that have to be dealt with by individual institutions. In addition, the time public TVET educators spend at educational institutions during the day also depend on historical differences of schools. What occupies educators' time most is also influenced by historical aspects. For example, some urban public TVET institutions have always insisted that educators go the extra mile in working extra hours for the good of the learners. Educators are however not paid for the extra effort expected from them and this can create problems because educators may feel exploited and creates the desire among them to leave the institution. Public TVET college sizes and class size in terms of overcrowding, shortages of learning materials and resources and increased administrative tasks for staff is another problem that may motivate educator to seek better places to go and work (Adedeji & Olaniyani, 2011). Gender based differences and biases focusing on what educators do are still prevalent in some institutions. For example, female educators are still discriminated against in terms of being availed promotional opportunities and being involved in decision-making. These discriminatory and gender biased tendencies result in lack of opportunities for female educator to ascend to principal and heads of department positions and may motivate female educators to think of leaving the institution (Adedeji & Olaniyani, 2011;McBride, Papier & Needham, 2009). Educators find it difficult to meet demands of Outcomes Based Education and Training (OBET). This is because different cohorts of learners spend different amounts of time on specific activities. This is sometimes caused by the nature of the learning disciplines offered by public TVET institutions. The abovementioned problems were compounded by an acute shortage of teaching and learning resources, and the effect of the requirements of the implementation of the Integrated Quality Management System (IQMS) which educators found a big challenge to contend with. The only option for left them was to leave the teaching profession or be perpetually absent from work (Adedeji & Olaniyani, 2011;DoE, 2005).

Poor pay structures:
In addition, the overall structure of educators' pay share most of the pervasive characteristics of public sector pay systems in Low Income Countries. Formal education and professional qualifications determine salary levels. The salary scales for educators in general are often very flat with very small salary increments awarded depending on seniority and experience. This has little or no link with the actual job performance of an individual educator and hence has the effect of de-motivating educators whenever ever they perceive being paid less than those they think are supposed to receive the same pay as themselves or less than themselves. This perception can cause an educator to think of leaving a job (Bennel & Akyeampong, 2007;Hussain, Yunus & Daud, 2013). Statista (2018) reported that in South Africa the inflation rate in 2010 was at 4.6% and this negatively affected educator salaries. (Please note that the inflation rate never stopped its upward trajectory trend from 2010). Statista (2018) revealed that in 2016 inflation was measured at 6.34%; in 2017 inflation was measured at 5.43%; in 2018 inflation was measured at 5.33% and was projected to be around 5.5% in 2019, which is very high and would affect the standard of living of educators. Vermeulen (2015) reported that in 2010 the Department of Education offered educators a 7% salary increment. Educators were dissatisfied Volume IX Issue 3, September 2018 51 www.scholarshub.net with the salary percentage increase and did not accept it. In South Africa the inflation rate has since risen to higher levels as figures given above indicate and this made educators get more and more dissatisfied with extrinsic and intrinsic rewards offered by the employer. In April of 2012 inflation was recorded at 6.10 percent. The South African inflation rate rose by 2.04 percent from 2011 levels, according to Statista (2018). The COSATU General Secretary, in 2011 threatened that labour was going to turn against the bosses for awarding higher salary increments to themselves. This was because bosses had awarded themselves salary increases of 30-40% well above inflation and were offering the workers' salaries below the inflation rate of 4.6% in 2010. The situation in South Africa was not different from that in Zimbabwe. According to (Uzhenyu, 2015), in Zimbabwe the highest paid executive was earning a monthly salary of between US$ 8000.00 and US $ 10 000.00 in 2011. In July 2011 civil servants in Zimbabwe earned an average monthly salary of US $ 253. This salary for the lowest paid civil servant in Zimbabwe was below the poverty datum line of US $500. The above described are factors that motivate employees in organisations to want to leave their jobs.

Open-ended contracts:
In Europe when educators are employed, they are offered open-ended contracts which are controlled by general labour legislations. In the public sector, educators in general are employed by local authorities or schools themselves just like what was happening in the public TVET institutions where some educators were employed directly by college councils when some were employed by the Department of Higher Education. In European countries such as Germany, United Kingdom and Greece, educators are civil servants employed by the central governments, regional authorities / governments or local authorities. In countries such as Ireland newly qualified educators do not qualify for permanent status as soon as they are engaged. However, after working for several years as educators they qualify to be awarded contracts of indefinite employment as educators. In countries such as France, Greece and Spain, in the TVET sector, educators seek and prefer to be afforded and rewarded civil servant status. They appreciate more the status of being a civil servant because of the benefits attached to this status. For TVET educators, civil servant status is a factor that attracts several educators into this sector. The situation described above is the same as what prevails in Belgium, Finland, Hungary, the Netherlands, Poland, Portugal, Slovenia, Turkey, and Germany. In these countries public contractual status is preferred by most educators and it comes with the same rights and benefits enjoyed by educators with civil servant status. This means that in the absence of conferment of public servant status and its attendant benefits, it can be concluded that more teachers would leave the teaching profession (European Commission, 2013; Tucker, 2012). According to the (DoE, 2005), public TVET educators are dissatisfied with intrinsic and extrinsic rewards offered by public TVET College Councils. Because of this, public TVET educators experience lack of job satisfaction which results in low morale. Lack of job satisfaction and low morale impacts public TVET educators' affective commitment. Public TVET educators end up leaving the teaching profession. Educators in general are also forced from their profession by emigration opportunities to Europe where they perceive and believe that there are greater opportunities for them to get better paying jobs as previously discussed. General dissatisfaction and demotivation with conditions of service also drive educators out of the teaching field. Lack of promotional opportunities and clear career pathing are also contributing factors to educator attrition (DoE, 2005).
In conclusion, because of high turnover of educators, in a study on educator supply and demand, (Crouch & Perry, 2003) predicted a looming shortage of educators in the teaching profession in general (Note that public TVET college educators were seconded to public TVET institutions by the Department of Basic Education since 2002). Crouch & Perry (2003) attributed the looming educator shortage to factors such as the impact of HIV/AIDS and increased turnover of educators. The other factors identified which contributed to the looming educator shortage were rushed administrative processes to control educator training capacity in the 1990s. Lack of interest in the profession among young people was also one of the factors that led to educator shortages. Crouch & Perry (2003) and (Hall, Altman, Nkomo, Pelter & Zuma, 2005)

METHODOLOGY:
The survey design was utilized in this study. An independent variable was presumed the cause of the dependent variables, or the presumed effect as described in the schematic diagram of the theoretical framework (Polonsky & Waller, 2011). It was assumed that public TVET educator dissatisfaction with rewards (intrinsic and extrinsic) paid by the Department of Higher Education (DHET) through College Councils caused educator turnover intentions and made educators also not to prolong their tenure with the colleges as depicted in Figure 2 (Zikmund, Babin, Carr & Griffin, 2013;Cooper & Schindler, 2014;Tredoux & Durrheim, 2013). A Job Descriptive Index (JDI) which measures five aspects of an employee's job satisfaction was utilised in collecting data (The JDI measures employee satisfaction with pay, promotion opportunities, supervision and co-workers, and the job itself). The JDI was adopted as a relevant data collection instrument and has been widely used in several organisations and has proven to be an effective data collection tool (Arshad, 2014;Azeem, 2010).

Problem statement:
Due to educator dissatisfaction with intrinsic and extrinsic rewards, public TVET institutions in the Western Cape have contributed to the national educator turnover rate of 5.6% nationwide since 2006.

Hypotheses for Problem statement:
Alternative Hypothesis (Ң): A relationship exists between the dissatisfaction of educators with rewards (intrinsic and extrinsic) offered by public TVET institutions in the Western Cape and an increase of educator turnover. Null Hypothesis (Hᴏ): No relationship exists between the dissatisfaction of educators with rewards (intrinsic and extrinsic) offered by public TVET institutions in the Western Cape and an increase of educator turnover.

FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION:
The results of the study were discussed under this section.

Hypotheses for problem statement:
Null Hypothesis (Hᴏ): No relationship exists between the dissatisfaction of educators with intrinsic and extrinsic rewards offered by public TVET institutions in the Western Cape and an increase of educator turnover; is discussed hereunder. The null hypothesis (Hᴏ) was rejected as it was evident that indeed a relationship existed between the two variables (independent and dependent). When educators are dissatisfied with extrinsic and intrinsic rewards, they leave the organisation for better opportunities elsewhere as expressed in the alternative hypothesis Ң. However, in this study it was discovered that educators in the sample stayed longer and one of the reasons they stayed longer in the public TVET College was attributed to intrinsic and extrinsic rewards offered by the public TVET Colleges. Alternatively, Public TVET educators who were older had no choice but had to stay put in a Public TVET institution since they were now old and did not find the prospects of moving into another job elsewhere attractive and motivating. Older Public TVET educators in this case were found to be making deliberate decisions to stay within their organisation because in most cases they felt that they could not be as adventurous as young educators who could still afford to explore greener pastures. In addition, the null Hᴏ was rejected because a significant relationship existed between the dissatisfaction of educators with intrinsic and extrinsic rewards (independent variable) offered by public TVET institutions and the attrition rates or educator turnover rates (dependent variable) experienced by the institutions. Where extrinsic and intrinsic rewards were perceived to be unfair or inferior to those offered in other vocations, this prompted Public TVET educators to seek and move to greener pastures. The null hypothesis (Hᴏ) was also rejected since it was proven that there was a close relationship between tenure and educator turnover rates. If educators were satisfied with intrinsic and extrinsic rewards they stayed longer in the organisation, if not they left the TVET College for better employment opportunities elsewhere. However, it should be noted that educators may have opted to stay longer in a public TVET Volume IX Issue 3, September 2018 53 www.scholarshub.net college for other reasons other than those expressed above, for example collegiality experienced by educators, type of supervision received, security in the community where the institution was located and support received in terms of provision of essential educational resources (See Figures 3, 4 and 5). Figure 3 illustrated that there was a weak correlation between the intrinsic reward satisfaction scale and tenure of public TVET educators. It was interpreted that Master's degree holders might have been afforded the opportunities of enjoying intrinsic rewards such as long holidays, autonomy and accountability in how they could perform their tasks in the Public TVET sector, and hence decided to stay in the organisation and compared to educators who did not enjoy these rewards. Work becomes more interesting under the conditions discussed above since educators do not experience monotony and the chances that they will think of leaving an organisation are minimised (Nujjo & Meyer, 2012). The above findings affirm the claim that money is not the ultimate reward that educators look for in their job. Educators are looking for other types of motivators as mentioned previously. This may be what they are looking for and has the effect of them extending their tenure and be retained by the organisation (Bussin, 2014;Shields, 2007). To support this claim, in Greece, it was discovered that educators were satisfied by the job itself and how they were supervised, and the autonomy they experienced in carrying-out their tasks and this had the effect of motivating educators stay in the jobs for many years (Gkolia et al., 2014). In this study, it was also discovered that the higher the age of Public TVET educators, the lower satisfaction with extrinsic rewards. In South Africa, young educators, just like in European countries are inducted or socialized when they join the teaching profession, but youths are not eager to join and stay for extended periods of time in the teaching profession because of perceived poor remuneration, and this is a big cause of educator turnover (See Figure 4). This disposition of young educators was ascribed to the argument that young educators felt that since they were still young and strong, they could adventure into other jobs which appeared more attractive. Because of these reasons, it was argued that educational institutions in general would lose more young people than old educators as long as young people perceived salaries offered in the education sector poor as compared to other attractive jobs (Chanza, Snelgar, Song & Louw, 2013;Van Zyl, 2010). Figure 4 showed that there was a positive correlation between extrinsic rewards and the of years a public TVET educator spent on the job without thinking of looking for another job. This implied that turnover of Public TVET educators was positively influenced by extrinsic rewards. The above assertion is confirmed by the fact that salaries and working conditions were found to be decisive elements in the motivation to leave a current job and move to another perceived to be more attractive in Finland and Ireland. The majority of educators looked for good pay in their careers. This indicates, as previously discussed that extrinsic rewards cannot be discounted as sources of employee job turnover and the desire to prolong tenure among Public TVET educators in the Western Cape. Educators look for money in their jobs to meet their basic needs such as shelter and food. This does not mean that educators are also looking for intrinsic rewards at the same time. Educators look for both these rewards at the same time but prioritize which of the two is the most important at different phases of their working life. And this is what the employer should identify in order to come up with a rewards combination that most appeals to employees and has the force to retain talent (Wisniewski, 1990, as cited in Aguinis, 2013).

CONCLUSION:
The overall conclusion reached is that dissatisfaction with rewards (extrinsic and intrinsic) significantly predicted educator turnover intentions and the desire to prolong tenure among educators in Western Cape Public TVET colleges. Where rewards (extrinsic and intrinsic) are perceived to be unfair or inferior to those offered in other vocations, Public TVET educators seek and move to greener pastures. Besides the fact that rewards (extrinsic and intrinsic) significantly influence educator turnover intentions and desires to prolong of tenure by Public TVET college educators, dissatisfaction with rewards (extrinsic and intrinsic) combined with poor collegiality experienced by educators, poor conditions of work, poor supervision received by educators, poor or lack of security in the community where the Public TVET college is located, and lack of support received from Department of Higher Education and Training (DHET) in terms of provision of essential educational services and facilities has even a greater impact in motivating Public TVET educators to leave their employment for greener pastures elsewhere.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS:
Great indebtedness is felt towards the Western Cape Provincial Education Department for granting this study to carried out in the five urban TVET colleges. These are TVET colleges such College of Cape Town, Boland College, False Bay College, Northlink College and West Cost Colleges. Many thanks also go to the Principals and academics staffs of these colleges who agreed to participate in the study and were cooperative throughout.